Nuclear Powered Payloads

US-A (RORSAT) with Buk-reactor
Voyager 2 with RTG power sources[NASA]
Nuclear power sources were and are used on spacecraft, when solar arrays are
insufficient in providing enough power, especially on deep space missions to the outer
solar system and on high-power application like radar satellites.
Currently, three types of nuclear energy sources have been used in space applications:
- Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTG)
- Nuclear reactors
- Radioisotope Heating Units (RHU)
The missions, which required nuclear power sources, fell in following categories:
- Experimental technology missions (Transit 4, Transit 5BN, Snapshot,
Kosmos 84, 90, Nimbus,
Triad, LES 8, 9,
Plasma-A)
- High powered military radar space craft (US-A)
- Interplanetary missions to the outer solar system (Pioneer 10,11, Voyager
1,2, Galileo, Ulysses,
Cassini, JIMO)
- Planetary stations and landers (Apollo ALSEP stations,
Viking Lander, Mars
96 Lander and Penetrators, Mars Pathfinder
Rover, MER A, B Rover)
Nuclear propulsion has not yet be implemented, although ground tests of nuclear engines
like the Nerva have been conducted. More likely is the future implementation of nuclear
powered electric engines, as proposed for NASA's project Prometheus, which might propel a
Jupiter Tour (JIMO - Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) spacecraft to orbit several moons of
Jupiter.
The main risk of nuclear powered missions is, that radioactivity could be released in
the event of an accident or reentry. Several accidents happened, some causing severe
radioactive pollution.
Complete Mission List:
Payload |
Date |
Launch Vehicle |
Suc |
Source Type |
Power Source |
Remarks |
Transit 4A |
29.06.1961 |
Thor-DM21 Able-Star |
P |
RTG |
SNAP-3B7 |
|
Transit 4B |
13.11.1961 |
Thor-DM21 Able-Star |
|
RTG |
SNAP-3B8 |
|
Transit 5BN-1 |
28.09.1963 |
Thor-DSV2A Able-Star |
|
RTG |
SNAP-9A |
|
Transit 5BN-2 |
05.12.1963 |
Thor-DSV2A Able-Star |
|
RTG |
SNAP-9A |
|
Transit 5BN-3 |
21.04.1964 |
Thor-DSV2A Able-Star |
F |
RTG |
SNAP-9A |
Burned up during reentry |
Snapshot |
03.04.1965 |
Atlas-SLV3 Agena-D |
|
Reactor |
SNAP-10A |
|
Kosmos 84 (Strela-1 #24) |
03.09.1965 |
Kosmos-1 (65S3) |
|
RTG |
Orion-1 |
|
Kosmos 90 (Strela-1 #29) |
18.09.1965 |
Kosmos-1 (65S3) |
|
RTG |
Orion-1 |
|
Nimbus B |
18.05.1968 |
Thorad-SLV2G Agena-D |
F |
RTG |
2 × SNAP-19B2 |
Fell into ocean, recovered |
Luna (15a) (Lunokhod (1)) |
19.02.1969 |
Proton-K Blok-D |
F |
RHU |
V3-R70-4 |
|
Nimbus 3 |
14.04.1969 |
Thorad-SLV2G Agena-D |
|
RTG |
2 × SNAP-19B2 |
|
EASEP (LM 5, Apollo 11) |
14.11.1969 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RHU |
ALRG-RHU |
|
ALSEP A1 (LM 6, Apollo 12) |
14.11.1969 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
|
ALSEP B (LM 7, Apollo 13) |
11.04.1970 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
Fell into South Pacific |
Kosmos 367 (US-A #1) |
03.10.1970 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Luna 17 (Lunokhod 1) |
10.11.1970 |
Proton-K Blok-D |
|
RHU |
V3-R70-4 |
|
ALSEP C (LM 8, Apollo 14) |
31.01.1971 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
|
Kosmos 402 (US-A #2) |
01.04.1971 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
ALSEP A2 (LM 10, Apollo 15) |
26.07.1971 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
|
Kosmos 469 (US-A #3) |
25.12.1971 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Pioneer 10 |
03.03.1972 |
Atlas-SLV3C Centaur-D Star-37E |
|
RTG |
4 × SNAP-19 |
|
ALSEP D (LM 11, Apollo 16) |
16.04.1972 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
|
Kosmos 516 (US-A #4) |
21.08.1972 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Triad 1 (TIP 1) |
02.09.1972 |
Scout-B1 |
|
RTG |
Transit-RTG |
|
ALSEP E (LM 12, Apollo 17) |
07.12.1972 |
Saturn-5 |
|
RTG |
SNAP-27 |
|
Luna 21 (Lunokhod 2) |
08.01.1973 |
Proton-K Blok-D |
|
RHU |
V3-R70-4 |
|
Pioneer 11 |
06.04.1973 |
Atlas-SLV3D Centaur-D1A Star-37E |
|
RTG |
4 × SNAP-19 |
|
Kosmos (556) (US-A #5) |
25.04.1973 |
Tsiklon-2 |
F |
Reactor |
Buk |
Fell into Pacific |
Kosmos 626 (US-A #6) |
27.12.1973 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 651 (US-A #7) |
15.05.1974 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 654 (US-A #8) |
17.05.1974 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 723 (US-A #9) |
02.04.1975 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 724 (US-A #10) |
07.04.1975 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Viking 1 Lander |
20.08.1975 |
Titan-3E Centaur-D1T |
|
RTG |
2 × SNAP-19 |
|
Viking 2 Lander |
09.09.1975 |
Titan-3E Centaur-D1T |
|
RTG |
2 × SNAP-19 |
|
Kosmos 785 (US-A #11) |
12.12.1975 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
LES 8 |
15.03.1976 |
Titan-3(23)C |
|
RTG |
2 × MHW-RTG |
|
LES 9 |
15.03.1976 |
Titan-3(23)C |
|
RTG |
2 × MHW-RTG |
|
Kosmos 860 (US-A #12) |
17.10.1976 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 861 (US-A #13) |
21.10.1976 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Voyager 2 |
20.08.1977 |
Titan-3E Centaur-D1T [Star-37E] |
|
RTG |
3 × MHW-RTG |
|
Voyager 1 |
05.09.1977 |
Titan-3E Centaur-D1T [Star-37E] |
|
RTG |
3 × MHW-RTG |
|
Kosmos 952 (US-A #14) |
16.09.1977 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 954 (US-A #15) |
18.09.1977 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
Fell on Canada |
Kosmos 1176 (US-A #16) |
29.04.1980 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1249 (US-A #17) |
05.03.1981 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1266 (US-A #18) |
21.04.1981 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1299 (US-A #19) |
24.08.1981 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1365 (US-A #20) |
14.05.1982 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1372 (US-A #21) |
01.06.1982 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1402 (US-A #22) |
30.08.1982 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
Fell into Indian Ocean |
Kosmos 1412 (US-A #23) |
02.10.1982 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1579 (US-A #24) |
29.06.1984 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1607 (US-A #25) |
31.10.1984 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1670 (US-A #26) |
01.08.1985 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1677 (US-A #27) |
23.08.1985 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1736 (US-A #28) |
21.03.1986 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1771 (US-A #29) |
20.08.1986 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1818 (Plasma-A #1) |
01.02.1987 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Topaz-1 |
|
Kosmos 1860 (US-A #30) |
18.06.1987 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1867 (Plasma-A #2) |
10.07.1987 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Topaz-1 |
|
Kosmos 1900 (US-A #31) |
12.12.1987 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Kosmos 1932 (US-A #32) |
14.03.1988 |
Tsiklon-2 |
|
Reactor |
Buk |
|
Galileo |
18.10.1989 |
Shuttle [IUS] |
|
RTG |
2 × GPHS-RTG |
|
Ulysses |
06.10.1990 |
Shuttle [IUS + PAM-S] |
|
RTG |
GPHS-RTG |
|
Mars 8 (Mars 96) 2 Lander, 2 Penetrators) |
16.11.1996 |
Proton-K
Blok-D-2 |
F |
RTG |
4 × RTG-Angel |
Fell on Bolivia (?) |
Mars Pathfinder Rover |
04.12.1996 |
Delta-7925 |
|
RHU |
LWRHU |
|
Cassini |
15.10.1997 |
Titan-401B Centaur-T |
|
RTG |
3 × GPHS-RTG |
|
MER A Rover (Spirit) |
10.06.2003 |
Delta-7925 |
|
RHU |
|
|
MER B Rover (Opportunity) |
08.07.2003 |
Delta-7925H |
|
RHU |
|
|
New Horizons |
19.01.2006 |
Atlas-5(551)¹ [Star-48B] |
|
RTG |
GPHS-RTG |
|
MSL Rover (Curiosity) |
26.11.2011 |
Atlas-5(541)¹ |
|
RTG |
|
|
Chang'e 3 / Yutu |
01.12.2013 |
CZ-3B/G2 |
|
RTG, RHU |
|
|
Chang'e 4 / Yutu-2 |
07.12.2018 |
CZ-3B/G2 |
|
RTG, RHU |
|
|
Mars 2020 (Perseverance) |
30.07.2020 |
Atlas-5(541)¹ |
|
RTG |
MMRTG |
|
Luna 25 (Luna-Glob Lander) |
10.08.2023 |
Soyuz-2-1b Fregat |
|
RTG |
? |
Crashed on the moon |
|
To be launched |
Dragonfly (New Frontiers 4) |
2027 |
|
|
RTG |
|
|
Failure List: